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Integrative and Comparative Biology 2002 42(3):508-516; doi:10.1093/icb/42.3.508
© 2002 by The Society for Integrative and Comparative Biology
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Causes and Consequences of Stress1

Neil Greenberg2,,1, James A. Carr2 and Cliff H. Summers3
1 Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville
2 Department of Biological Sciences, Texas Tech University, Lubbock 79409-3131
3 Biology and Neuroscience, University of South Dakota, Vermillion, South Dakota 57069

Stress involves real or perceived changes within an organism in the environment that activate an organism's attempts to cope by means of evolutionarily ancient neural and endocrine mechanisms. Responses to acute stressors involve catecholamines released in varying proportion at different sites in the sympathetic and central nervous systems. These responses may interact with and be complemented by intrinsic rythms and responses to chronic or intermittent stressors involving the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. Varying patterns of responses to stressors are also affected by an animal's assessment of their prospects for successful coping. Subsequent central and systemic consequences of the stress response include apparent changes in affect, motivation, and cognition that can result in an altered relationship to environmental and social stimuli. This review will summarize recent developments in our understanding of the causes and consequences of stress. Special problems that need to be explored involve the manner in which ensembles of adaptive responses are assembled, how autonomic and neurohormonal reflexes of the stress response come under the influence of environmental stimuli, and how some specific aspects of the stress response may be integrated into the life history of a species.


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